I N T R E P X

Chapter 5 of “Folly and Glory” by Tim Weiner examines two of the most dramatic and perilous events of the Cold War: the rise of the Berlin Wall in 1961 and the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. These events marked critical points of confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union, testing the resolve, strategy, and leadership of both superpowers. In this chapter, Weiner details the political, military, and intelligence maneuvers that defined these crises, illustrating how close the world came to nuclear war and how these episodes shaped the Cold War’s trajectory.

1. The Berlin Crisis and the Construction of the Wall:
Weiner begins by exploring the tensions in Berlin, a city that had become a focal point of Cold War rivalry due to its status as a divided city within East Germany, controlled by the Soviet Union. Since the end of World War II, Berlin had been split into four sectors, controlled by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union. The western sectors became West Berlin, a capitalist enclave within communist East Germany.

By the late 1950s, East Germany was suffering from a severe brain drain, as millions of East Germans, including many skilled professionals, fled to the West through Berlin. This exodus threatened the stability and credibility of the East German regime and embarrassed the Soviet Union. In response, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev demanded that the Western Allies withdraw from Berlin, turning it into a “free city.” The Western powers, led by U.S. President John F. Kennedy, refused, resulting in a tense standoff.

In August 1961, East German authorities, with Soviet support, erected the Berlin Wall almost overnight, physically dividing East and West Berlin and stemming the flow of refugees. Weiner describes the wall as a stark symbol of the ideological divide between East and West, effectively trapping East Germans behind the Iron Curtain. The wall also represented the failure of the Soviet system to maintain its population without coercion and underscored the East-West confrontation in Europe.

2. U.S. and Soviet Reactions to the Berlin Wall:
Weiner outlines the U.S. response to the construction of the Berlin Wall, noting that President Kennedy, while publicly condemning the wall as a “monstrous” act, recognized that it served as a stabilizing factor by reducing the immediate risk of armed conflict over Berlin. The wall, while a blatant violation of human rights, allowed the Soviets and East Germans to maintain control without directly challenging the U.S. presence in West Berlin.

Kennedy’s administration decided against any military intervention to dismantle the wall, opting instead for a policy of non-recognition of the barrier while reinforcing the U.S. commitment to defend West Berlin. This decision avoided direct conflict but also accepted the division of Berlin as a new status quo, solidifying the separation of Europe into Eastern and Western blocs.

3. Prelude to the Cuban Missile Crisis:
Shifting focus, Weiner then examines the events leading up to the Cuban Missile Crisis, another pivotal confrontation that brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. After the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961, Fidel Castro’s Cuba grew increasingly dependent on the Soviet Union for economic and military support. Khrushchev, eager to protect his ally and challenge U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere, decided to secretly deploy nuclear missiles in Cuba.

Weiner details the strategic calculations behind Khrushchev’s decision, including the desire to level the nuclear playing field, as the U.S. had stationed nuclear missiles in Turkey, close to the Soviet border. By placing missiles in Cuba, Khrushchev aimed to deter any further U.S. attempts to overthrow Castro and demonstrate Soviet resolve. However, this risky move was kept secret from the U.S. and most of the Soviet leadership until the missiles were already on their way to Cuba.

4. Discovery and U.S. Response:
The crisis began in earnest on October 14, 1962, when a U.S. U-2 reconnaissance plane captured photographs of Soviet missile sites under construction in Cuba. This discovery shocked the Kennedy administration, revealing that the Soviet Union was placing offensive nuclear weapons just 90 miles from the U.S. mainland. The potential threat of these missiles was enormous, as they could strike most of the continental United States with little warning.

Weiner describes the tense deliberations within Kennedy’s executive committee, known as ExComm, as they debated how to respond. The options ranged from diplomatic pressure to a full-scale invasion of Cuba. Ultimately, Kennedy chose a naval blockade, euphemistically called a “quarantine,” to prevent further Soviet shipments of military equipment to Cuba. The blockade was a show of force intended to buy time while avoiding an immediate military confrontation.

5. The Brink of Nuclear War:
As the U.S. enforced the blockade, tensions escalated. Weiner recounts the perilous days of the standoff, with Soviet ships approaching the quarantine line and both U.S. and Soviet military forces on high alert. During these critical moments, there were numerous incidents that could have triggered war, including a U-2 plane mistakenly straying into Soviet airspace and the downing of another U-2 over Cuba by a Soviet missile.

The crisis reached its peak when Khrushchev and Kennedy exchanged messages proposing potential solutions. While initially taking a hard line, Khrushchev ultimately offered to remove the missiles from Cuba in exchange for a U.S. pledge not to invade the island. In a secret addendum, the U.S. also agreed to remove its Jupiter missiles from Turkey, although this part of the agreement was not publicly acknowledged at the time.

6. Resolution and Aftermath:
On October 28, 1962, Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union would dismantle and remove the missiles from Cuba, effectively ending the immediate crisis. Weiner emphasizes the crucial role that back-channel communications, careful diplomacy, and the willingness of both leaders to compromise played in averting nuclear war. The resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis was seen as a major victory for Kennedy, though it also highlighted the catastrophic potential of nuclear brinkmanship.

The chapter concludes by examining the aftermath of the crisis, which led to a temporary thaw in U.S.-Soviet relations and the establishment of direct communication links, including the famous “hotline” between Washington and Moscow. Both superpowers recognized the need to manage their rivalry more carefully to avoid future confrontations that could spiral out of control. However, the crisis also reinforced the nuclear arms race, as each side sought to strengthen its deterrent capabilities.

Conclusion:
Chapter 5 of “Folly and Glory” vividly portrays the Berlin Wall and Cuban Missile Crisis as emblematic of the Cold War’s high-stakes nature, where the potential for miscalculation could lead to devastating consequences. Weiner highlights the importance of leadership, intelligence, and diplomacy in managing these crises, as well as the broader implications for international relations during the Cold War. These events underscored the fragility of peace in a nuclear-armed world and the ongoing challenge of navigating superpower competition without triggering catastrophic conflict.